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From Transactional to Transcendental: Toward An Integrated Theory of Leadership

August 27, 2003 

"It has been suggested, in several studies (c.f. Wheatley, 1999, Jaworoski, 2000; Kouzes & Posner, 1999), that the journey of leadership is primarily an internal plight to connect with a higher influence.  Further suggested in these studies is that in order to truly understand the notion of leadership, we must focus on the internal development of the leader.  Emmons' (1999) treatise on 'ultimate concerns' defines spirituality as that aspect of life concerned with ultimate purpose and meaning in life, which translates into a commitment to God or a higher power, recognition of the transcendent in everyday experience, a selfless focus, and a set of beliefs and practices that facilitates a relationship with the transcendent. 

 One might infer from this definition that spirituality is the gestalt of all manifestations of an individual's essence, and conclude that spirituality mobiles the individual towards meaningful or 'transcendental accomplishment.  Thompson (2000) posits that transcendental accomplishment cannot occur without spirituality.  We conceptualize Thompson's postulation in a mode of 'transcendental leadership,' which proposes that hierarchical levels of desired leadership accomplishments.  The model proposes three structural levels of leadership accomplishment: (1) transactional, (2) transformational, and (3) transcendental.  Essentially, the model proposes that leaders' development along three dimensions of spirituality (consciousness, moral character and faith) is associated with development along these three levels of leadership accomplishment.  Our proposed theory of transcendental leadership is intended to provide a framework.  Our theory is not an attempt to redefine leadership; instead this theory purports to provide a more comprehensive view of leadership by connecting traditional theories to a meaningful domain, spirituality. 

 Based on our search of the leadership literature, the idea of transcendental leadership was first broached by Cardona (2000), who describes the concept as a contribution-based exchange relationship.  He views the transcendental leader as being concerned with his or her followers and tries to contribute their personal development. 

 The work of Kant (1997 associates the term 'transcendental' with whatever an individual's mental and spiritual nature conceives as above experience or beyond ego.  Our theory of transcendental leadership recognizes the internal force (spirituality) that compels leaders to fulfill this ultimate need.  Kant generally espouses that in order for individuals to experience meaningful development, they (1) need consciousness of passing into a higher sphere of being, (2) possess a deepened conviction, (3) make sense of spaciousness, (4) seek clarity between reality and the relative unreal, (5) seek moral harmony, and (6) integrate the immaterial - i.e., spirit  - with the material - i.e. the body. 

 Basically, our theory incorporates the idea that developing spirituality along these three dimensions allow leaders to become less concerned about  the constraining realities of the external environment, which can limit leader effectiveness, and more concerned about an internal development that transcend realities as defined by the environment. 

 Our conceptual model of transcendental leadership both integrates and builds on existing leadership theory.  Specifically, the model presents transactional, transformational, and transcendental theories of leadership as being linked together along common continua.  The first continuum shown in the model. Locus of control, concerns the extent to which leaders are internally or externally oriented.  As shown in the model, transactional leadership is positioned at the low end of the effectiveness continuum.  The lower positioning of transactional leadership theory on the spirituality continuum suggests that leadership at this level is likely to be associated with a relatively low sense of divine awareness, a pre-conventional level of moral development, and faith I rational authority. 

 Based on the literature and discussions presented up to this point in this article, the following statements can be supported:  (1) The nature of the relationship between transactional, transformational, and transcendental theories of leadership is defined along the hierarchical continuum, and (2) as leaders develop along the hierarchical continuum there will be a commensurate development in their spirituality.

 Our interest in structural shifts in consciousness is shared with several transpersonal models of human development.  Transpersonal models focus on human development with the realization of unitized, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness.  With respect to the relationship between the transactional, transformational, and transcendental theories of leadership, spirituality, and leader effectiveness, the literature on consciousness would support the following proposition:  Proposition 1:  As leaders develop along the transactional-transformational-transcendental hierarchy continuum, the consciousness dimension of spirituality and thus leader effectiveness will become more developed.

 Greek philosophers, such as Socrates and Aristotle, provide us with a foundational understanding of moral character.  They focused on the disposition that causes individuals to  make choices between right and wrong, and the habitual actions that follow.  As moral character is argued to be the essence of spiritual experiences (Kanungo & Mendoca, 1994), we associate development along the transactional-transformational-transcendental leadership hierarchy with development of this dimension of spirituality.  Thus, Proposition 2:  As leaders develop along the transactional-transformational-transcendental leadership hierarchy continuum, the moral character dimension of spirituality and thus leader effectiveness will become more developed.

Fowler (1981) argues that faith is not necessarily a religious matter, but a universally human way of making sense of one's existence.  Parks (2000) describes the emotional development of the soul as four stages of faith.  The first stage is the dependent stage, where the leader depends on an outside authority for feelings of assurance, rightness, hope, loyalty, and fear.  However, as the leader evolves he or she becomes more inner-dependent and eventually interdependent.  This final stage of interdependence constitutes a qualitative transformation in the balance of vulnerability, trust, and faith.  Suggested here is that attention to the development of the soul, as defined by faith, provides some access to how the essence of a leader thinks and feels as he or she composes meaning in life.  Proposition 3:  As leaders develop along the transactional-transformational-transcendental hierarchy continuum, the faith dimension of spirituality and thus leader effectiveness will become more developed. 

 Transcendental leadership is a new and more comprehensive way of viewing effective leadership.  Our model embodies the spiritual demands of society and its organizations by explicitly suggesting spirituality as an important component of leadership.  Our model also helps to fill some of the gaps that currently exist in traditional leadership theories.  Traditional theories, for a large part, tend to focus on external manifestations of leadership.    At the personal/individual level, the model bridges the gap between spirituality and leadership by stimulating practical and scholarly consideration about their relationship. 

 Our theory is by no means intended to be a definitive theory on leadership; however, it is instead intended to evoke ideas and discussion about the role that spirituality can play in leadership.  While our theory remains to be empirically tested in a variety of social and organizational environments, we view this as an opportunity for further research.  Empirical research would provide evidence of the role that spirituality might actually play in leader effectiveness, as well as a practical framework of the nature and traits of transcendental leadership that might be applied in organizational studies.  Finally, we acknowledge that spiritual influences are very subjective and oftentimes subtle.  Although we have broadly employed the term spirituality, our use of the term is still potentially limiting.  The challenge of transcendental theory of leadership, within both research and practical contexts is how to integrate spirituality into leadership without offending those who may not appreciate or understand how this aspect of leading relates to effectiveness.  Another, and perhaps more involved challenge is how to make visible and useful the reality of spirituality that is hidden in plain sight.  It is our hope that our model will help clarify this relationship, as well as help leaders in their journey toward transcendental accomplishment (Sanders III, Hopkins, & Geroy, 2003, p. 21-31)."

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Reference: Sanders III, J. E., Hopkins, W. E., & Geroy, G. D. (2003).  From transactional to transcendental: toward an integrated theory of leadership.  The Journal of Leadership Studies, 9, No 4.

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Created: 2008-01-09, Updated: 2009-02-17